DIEA-Artículos

URI permanente para esta colecciónhttps://hdl.handle.net/10953/234

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3D object recognition for anthropomorphic robots performing tracking tasks
(Springer, 2019-07-03) Satorres Martínez, Silvia; Sánchez García, Alejandro; Estévez Estévez, Elisabet; Gómez Ortega, Juan; Gámez García, Javier
Object recognition is still a major research issue of particular relevance in robotics. The new trend in industrial and mainly in service robotics is to perform manipulation tasks in an unstructured environment working in synergy with humans. To perform tasks in an environment that is not perfectly controlled, robots need adequate perceptual capabilities. Among various types of sensors available for robotic systems, the time-of-flight (ToF) camera is one of the most utilized since it simultaneously provides intensity and depth data at a high frame rate. Our proposal makes use of this technology exploiting both, depth and grey-scale information. Therefore, intensity and geometric features are fused together to allow 3D object recognition in real scenes in presence of partial occlusions. As a case study, an object tracking task for an anthropomorphic robot is presented. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, not only providing reliable visual information about the object to be tracked but also recognizing potential obstacles which should be avoided during the robot arm movement.
A computer vision approach based on endocarp features for the identification of olive cultivars
(ELSEVIER, 2018-09-20) Satorres Martínez, Silvia; Martínez Gila, Diego Manuel; Abdullah, Beyaz; Gómez Ortega, Juan; Gámez García, Javier
The identification of olive cultivars is of utmost importance for a multitude of factors affecting both, the olive oil elaboration process and fair trade exchanges. The accurate varietal identification is a time consuming task that requires trained specialists or expensive and specific equipment. When applying the traditional method, a specialist assesses morphological features using the olive endocarp. A proposal to automate this identification method is presented in this paper. Endocarp images, acquired under three different perspectives, are processed to extract the same information that the specialist utilizes. Then, the partial least squares discriminant analysis classifier, with or without feature selection, has been tested on a set of 250 samples from 5 different varieties. Results show that the proposal is an alternative identification method which could also be used in the traditional one in order to assist the specialist in the determination of the variety.
A Customizable Architecture for Application-Centric Management of Context-Aware Applications
(IEEE, 2022-01) Gangoiti, Unai; López-García, Alejandro; Armentia, Aintzane; Estévez-Estévez, Elisabet; Marcos, Marga; Casquero, Oskar
Context-aware applications present common requirements (e.g., heterogeneity, scalability, adaptability, availability) in a variety of domains (e.g., healthcare, natural disaster prevention, smart factories). Besides, they do also present domain specific requirements, among which the application concept itself is included. Therefore, a platform in charge of managing their execution must be generic enough to cover common requirements, but it must also be adaptable enough to consider the domain aspects to meet the demands at application-level. Several approaches in the literature tackle some of these demands, but not all of them, and without considering the applications concept and the customization demands in different domains. This work proposes a generic and customizable management architecture that covers both types of requirements based on multi-agent technology and model-driven development. Multi-agent technology is used to enable the distributed intelligence needed to address many common requirements, whereas model-driven development allows to address domain specific particularities. On top of that, a customization methodology to develop specific platforms from this generic architecture is also presented. This methodology is assessed by means of a case study in the domain of eHealthCare. Finally, the performance of MAS-RECON is compared with the most popular tool for the orchestration of containerized applications.
A method for estimating the cell temperature at maximum power point of a HCPV module under actual operating conditions
(Elsevier Ltd, 2014-05) Eduardo F. Fernández, P. Rodrigo; F. Almonacid, P. Pérez-Higueras
The operating cell temperature of a HCPV module or system is a key factor, because it directly affects efficiency and reliability. Hence, the accurate estimation of cell temperature in a HCPV module is crucial. Under real operating conditions, HCPV modules work at the maximum power point, because they are connected to an inverter. At the maximum power point, the cell temperature is lower than the cell temperature of open circuit, because solar cells are generating power which is not transformed into heat. At present, none of the existing methods are valid to estimate the operating cell temperature of a HCPV module connected to an inverter. In this paper, a procedure for estimating this temperature is introduced. The results show that the proposed method performs effectively in the estimation of the cell temperature in a HCPV module connected to an inverter. In addition, an analysis of the difference between the cell temperature of open circuit and the cell temperature at the maximum power point in a HCPV is conducted and a difference of up to 21 °C has been found.
A Methodological Approach for Integrating Physical Assets in Industry 4.0
(IEEE, 2023-09) López-García, Alejandro; Estévez-Estévez, Elisabet; Casquero, Oskar; Marcos, Marga
The paradigm of the fourth industrial revolution poses the combined use of technologies that provide companies with adaptability to face uncertain market scenarios. Different institutions have presented their reference architectures to apply principles of the fourth industrial revolution in a standardized way, being the German proposal Industry 4.0 (I4.0) the most widespread. Nowadays most companies are still in the computerization and digitalization phases prior to being able to connect to I4.0. This situation highlights the need for solutions for the integration of physical assets in I4.0. However, most of the work in this area focuses on ad-hoc solutions, or at least technology-dependent ones. This article presents a multilayer approach for integrating physical assets in I4.0. The goal is to separate the different concerns related to the integration of physical assets into abstract layers. This approach allows addressing these concerns in a generic way, regardless of the type of asset and/or the technology used, as well as efficient, since it addresses each concern separately. This approach is complemented by a methodology that provides guidelines for integrating physical assets according to the multilayer approach. The applicability of the multilayer approach and the integration methodology is put to the test by integrating a roboticarm.
A new approach based on economic profitability to sizing the photovoltaic generator in self-consumption systems without storage
(Elsevier, 2020-04) Jiménez-Castillo, Gabino; Muñoz-Rodriguez, Francisco José; Rus-Casas, Catalina; López-Talavera, Diego
A proper assessment of the cost-competitiveness and profitability of self-consumption systems is crucial to promoting the transition from grid-dependent to energy self-sufficient buildings. Most of the approaches found in the literature may not take into account economic parameters such as taxes, depreciation and the cost of financing, which have a significant effect on the economic profitability of an investment. Moreover, they only focus on discrete array powers and relatively high recording intervals when estimating the self-consumed energy. In order to manage the aforementioned challenges, a new method will be developed to size the PV generator in a PV self-consumption system which provides the NPV curve together with the self-consumption and self-sufficiency indices for a wide range of array powers which suits residential self-consumption systems. Two scenarios will be considered depending on whether the generated surplus electricity is wasted or it is remunerated from the grid operator. Results show that not only the chosen scenario but the electricity tariff may be key parameters when optimizing NPV. Furthermore, the impact of the recording interval may be significant when estimating NPV. Percentage errors of 11.4% and 33.6% may be reached when considering a recording interval of 15 and 60 min, respectively.
A new approach to analyse from monitored data the performance, matching capability and grid usage of large Rooftop Photovoltaic systems. Case of study: Photovoltaic system of 1.05 MW installed at the campus of University of Jaén
(Elsevier, 2025) Muñoz-Rodríguez, Francisco José; Gómez-Vidal, Pedro; Fernández-Carrasco, Juan Ignacio; Tina, Giuseppe Marco; Jiménez-Castillo, Gabino
Rooftop photovoltaic installations highlight their potential to meet a significant portion of urban electricity demand. These systems range from a few kW in residential areas to hundreds of kW in large Rooftop PV systems in commercial and industrial settings. The latter, which may include several inverters or arrays with different orientations and inclinations, require a proper analysis to assess the potential of this technology and to ensure the design objectives. This paper presents a methodology for analysing from monitored data large Rooftop PV systems, focusing on performance, self-consumption and grid usage. The approach is scalable, applicable at the inverter, individual Rooftop PV and global system levels. New key parameters defined include weighted system irradiation (HI,weighted) and weighted system reference yield (Yr,weighted), which account for different array orientations and inclinations. The methodology is validated using a 1.05 MW system at the University of Jaén with monitored data over a year. Results indicate subsystem and system PR values above 0.83 and a system Capacity Factor of 0.19, confirming a proper performance. Annual self-consumption and self-sufficiency indices of 97.5 % and 17.7 %, respectively, and a solar hour self-sufficiency of 27.7 % reveal minimal energy export and substantial potential to meet the university’s electricity demand.
A new approach to sizing the photovoltaic generator in self-consumption systems based on cost–competitiveness, maximizing direct self-consumption
(Elsevier, 2019-01) López-Talavera , Diego; Muñoz-Rodríguez , Francisco José; Jiménez-Castillo, Gabino; Rus-Casas, Catalina
Applications for sizing Photovoltaic (PV) self-consumption systems have been studied over recent years in order to achieve either an optimization of the cost of energy, the investment cost or any economic profitability criteria. However, PV self-consumption systems at the residential or small business level can be designed with the aims of reducing the electricity consumption from the conventional local grid and achieving competitiveness with grid electricity prices. These criteria will provide not only greater environmental benefits, security and independence of the grid but it will make the cost of PV self-consumption electricity competitive with electricity prices from the power grid. In this sense, this paper proposes a method to size the generator for a PV self-consumption system based on cost-competitiveness, maximizing direct self-consumption. The method will be applied for three different households located in the south of Spain using the household daily consumption and generation profiles for a single year. However, the method here illustrated can be applied to other countries. The results obtained suggest that residential direct PV self-consumption systems with an annual global irradiation at the optimal tilt angle higher than 1000 kWh/(m2·year) may be a feasible investment to future owners of these systems.
An experimental comparison between commercial hybrid PV-T and simple PV systems intended for BIPV
(Elsevier, 2018) Fuentes-Conde, Manuel; Vivar, Marta; de la Casa, Juan; Aguilera-Tejero, Jorge
The idea of combining both thermal and photovoltaic collectors in hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) modules actually shows a great potential for integration on facades and rooftops of buildings, mainly because of the reduced available space and the benefits of the on-site electricity and thermal generation. The objective of this work is to compare the real performance (experimental data obtained under real sun during a year) of a commercial hybrid PV-T system vs. a simple PV system using microinverters, assessing the suitability of one-unit hybrid PV-T systems vs. two separated units – PV systems + Thermal systems – for building integration. The combined efficiency over the span of a full day could reach values up to 80%, but this apparent high value needs to be analysed in detail. From the experimental results, it can be observed that both systems, PV and PV-T, have a good electrical performance. But the PV-T system output does not benefit from the lower module temperatures that it should achieve from the active cooling in its back, presenting the same performance as the simple PV system. Regarding the microinverters configuration performance, it has been very positive working with high efficiencies above 96%, justifying its use in this type of applications. In conclusion, the commercial PV-T system has not performed as expected, showing problems with the integration of the active cooling in the back of the PV modules. At this moment, and despite the potential of PV-T systems for BIPV due to space limitations, commercial PV-T systems are still far from PV and Thermal systems using separately.
An industrial agent-based customizable platform for I4.0 manufacturing systems
(Elsevier, 2023-01) López-García, Alejandro; Casquero, Oskar; Estévez-Estévez, Elisabet; Armentia, Aintzane; Orive, Darío; Marcos, Marga
The fourth industrial revolution paradigm places value on the management of information related to the manufacturing process. Reference Architectural Model for Industrie 4.0 (RAMI 4.0), proposed by Plattform Industrie 4.0 (I4.0), provides a starting point for the development of I4.0 systems, based on: (1) international standards organized in a cubic model; (2) a set of key concepts to define the system participants, called I4.0 components; and (3) a list of infrastructure services required to manage I4.0 components and support them in the execution of manufacturing applications. However, the terms in which RAMI 4.0 is stated are generic and neutral from a technological point of view, without actually providing support for the practical development of concrete management platforms (I4.0 Platforms). This work contributes an I4.0 platform for the manufacturing domain that offers the infrastructure services required to manage an I4.0 system. The objective is to bring Industry 4.0 closer to companies, bridging the existing gap by providing a platform aligned with RAMI 4.0 which also offers tools and resources to facilitate the development of I4.0 components. To that end, this I4.0 platform is based on industrial agents, which have an inherent ability to negotiate and cooperate with each other and address the integration of assets. The applicability of the proposed I4.0 platform is evaluated by means of a testing scenario.
Analysing the reciprocity law for UV-LEDs in water disinfection of Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis and Clostridium perfringens
(MDPI, 2023) Kamel, Ahmed; Palacios, Ana; Fuentes, Manuel; Vivar, Marta
The aim of this study is to verify the reciprocity law in the wastewater disinfection process using UV light. The optical power UV-LEDs used were 1.6 mW and 50 mW, and the wavelengths were 265 nm and 275 nm. E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Clostridium perfringens were the three microorganisms analysed in the study. The results showed lower inactivation rates around 0.063–0.065 cm2/mJ for 265 nm and 0.047–0.049 cm2/mJ for 275 nm for the Clostridium perfringens compared with the other two bacteria. For E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis, the inactivation rate was almost identical; 0.28 and 0.21 cm2/mJ, respectively, using 265 nm wavelength. There was a slightly better inactivation performance using the medium-power 275 nm UV-LEDs of 0.39 cm2/mJ and 0.29 cm2/mJ for E. coli and Enterococcus faecalis, respectively, and 0.33 cm2/mJ and 0.26 cm2/mJ using the low-power 275 nm UV-LEDs. The analysed data justify the reciprocity law for UV-LEDs disinfection using 265 nm and 275 nm UV-LEDs with two optical powers of 1.6 mW and 50 mW.
Analysis of Different Scenarios to Include PV Rooftop Systems with Battery Energy Storage Systems in Olive Mills
(MDPI, 2023-12-27) Sánchez-Jiménez, José Luis; Muñoz-Rodríguez, Francisco José; Jiménez-Castillo, Gabino; Martínez-Calahorro, Antonio Javier; Rus-Casas, Catalina
The industrial sector is not the one with the highest energy consumption but, together with, it represents the most, together with the transport sector, the most polluting ones. Photovoltaic Rooftop systems and battery energy storage systems are very strong candidates to include renewable energy, allowing greater grid autonomy and greenhouse gas mitigation. Therefore, this paper aims to outline it will be provided a methodology based on monitored data to analyze the potential of photovoltaic Rooftops with battery energy storage systems regarding self-consumption and self-sufficiency indices in the industrial sector. Direct self-consumption and self-sufficiency indices, either with or without storage, will be analyzed. In addition, the iso self-consumption and iso self-sufficiency curves are used, which allow us to evaluate the matching between the generation and consumption profiles considering either direct self-consumption or the use of batteries. In this sense, a large, medium, and small olive mill were selected in order to cover the entire spectrum of these industries. Olive mills are suitable candidates for the incorporation of photovoltaic systems since generation profiles match the consumption profiles. However, the size of these systems is highly dependent on the period of consumption to be faced. Regarding batteries, both during the harvest and off-harvest periods, the impact on self-sufficiency becomes significant, reaching increases of up to 10%, depending on the battery capacity used.
Analysis of the spectral variations on the performance of high concentrator photovoltaic modules operating under different real climate conditions
(2014-08) Eduardo F. Fernández, F. Almonacid; J. A. Ruiz-Arias, A. Soria-Moya
Multi-junction (MJ) solar cells show an important dependence on the incident spectrum due to the internal series connection of several cells with different band gap energies. The influence of spectral variations on the performance of HCPV modules or systems is different from that in MJ solar cells since they use optical devices to concentrate the light on the solar cell surface. The spectral distribution of irradiance is affected by atmospheric parameters and changes during the course of day, month or year. Because of this, several authors have done different studies to analyse and quantify the spectral effects on the performance of HCPV modules. However, there are still important issues that have not been addressed. In this paper, a deep analysis of the spectral effects on the performance of different HCPV modules with different multi-junction solar cells and Fresnel lenses on an annual time scale and their study and comparison at locations with different climate conditions is conducted. In order to address this issue, ground-based climatologies at the locations studied, spectra simulations with the SMARTS model and the spectral factor of a HCPV module have been used. Results show that the annual spectral losses vary from 6% to 51% depending on the climate conditions of the location and the HCPV module.
Application of a Lab-Made Voltametric Electronic Tongue to Identify Musty and Vinegary Defects in Olive Oils
(Springer, 2022-11-25) Martínez Gila, Diego; Estévez, Elisabet; Gómez Ortega, Juan; Gámez García, Javier
The olive oil sector is undergoing a technological transformation promoted by high international competitiveness. This transformation must be aligned with the concepts of industry 4.0 that are already well defined and implemented in other sectors. The integration of advanced sensorics in the process phase in which the quality of the manufactured product is inspected is key to responding in the shortest possible time to deviations in the desired quality. In this work, the results of the experimentation carried out with an e-tongue voltammetric sensor are presented to evaluate its potential in the detection of two of the organoleptic defects that appear more frequently in olive oil (musty and vinegary). This sensor has been built in the research group’s laboratory and is made up of three metals in the measurement probe (nickel, silver and copper). Three classification algorithms (Support Vector Machines, Naïve Bayes and Classification Trees) were used and musty-type defect was identified with a success rate of 72%, while the vinegary-type defect was detected with a success rate of 84%.
Application of a Lab-Made Voltametric Electronic Tongue to Identify Musty and Vinegary Defects in Olive Oils
(Springer, 2022-11-25) Martínez Gila, Diego Manuel; Estévez Estévez, Elisabet; Gómez Ortega, Juan; Gámez García, Javier
The olive oil sector is undergoing a technological transformation promoted by high international competitiveness. This transformation must be aligned with the concepts of industry 4.0 that are already well defined and implemented in other sectors. The integration of advanced sensorics in the process phase in which the quality of the manufactured product is inspected is key to responding in the shortest possible time to deviations in the desired quality. In this work, the results of the experimentation carried out with an e-tongue voltammetric sensor are presented to evaluate its potential in the detection of two of the organoleptic defects that appear more frequently in olive oil (musty and vinegary). This sensor has been built in the research group’s laboratory and is made up of three metals in the measurement probe (nickel, silver and copper). Three classification algorithms (Support Vector Machines, Naïve Bayes and Classification Trees) were used and musty-type defect was identified with a success rate of 72%, while the vinegary-type defect was detected with a success rate of 84%.
Assessment of fruity aroma intensity in olive oils from different Spanish regions using a portable electronic nose
(Wiley, 2023-11-28) Bianchi, Alessandro; Cano-Marchal, Pablo; Martínez-Gila, Diego Manuel; Mencarelli, Fabio; Gámez-García, Javier
BACKGROUND: The organoleptic profile of an olive oil is a fundamental quality parameter obtained by human sensory panels. In this work, a portable electronic nose was employed to predict the fruity aroma intensity of 199 olive oil samples from different Spanish regions and cultivar varieties (‘Picual’, ‘Arbequina’, and ‘Cornicabra’), with special emphasis in testing the robustness of the predictions versus cultivar variety variability. The primary data given by the electronic nose were used to obtain two different feature vectors that were employed to fit ridge and lasso regressions models to two datasets: one consisting of all the samples and another just the cv. Picual samples. RESULTS: The results obtained showed mean average error (MAE) values below 0.88 in all cases, with an MAE of 0.67 for the ‘Picual’ model. These MAE values and the similarities in the model parameters fitted for the different data folds are in agreement with the results obtained in previous studies. CONCLUSION: The large number of samples analyzed and the results obtained show the robustness of the approach and the applicability of the methods. Also, the results suggest that better performance can be obtained when specific models are fitted for particular cultivars. Overall, the proposed methods are capable of providing useful information for a fast screening of the fruity aroma intensity of olive oils. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Assessment of Single-Axis Solar Tracking System Efficiency in Equatorial Regions: A Case Study of Manta, Ecuador
(MDPI, 2024-08-09) Ponce-Jara, Marcos A.; Pazmino, Ivan; Moreira-Espinoza, Ángelo; Gunsha-Morales, Alfonso; Rus-Casas, Catalina
Ecuador is grappling with a severe energy crisis, marked by frequent power outages. A recent study explored solar energy efficiency in the coastal city of Manta using an IoT real-time monitoring system to compare static photovoltaic (PV) systems with two single-axis solar tracking systems: one based on astronomical programming and the other using light-dependent resistor (LDR) sensors. Results showed that both tracking systems outperformed the static PV system, with net gains of 31.8% and 37.0%, respectively. The astronomical-programming-based system had a slight edge, operating its stepper motor intermittently for two minutes per hour, while the LDR system required continuous motor energization. The single-axis tracker using astronomical programming demonstrated notable advantages in energy efficiency and complexity, making it suitable for equatorial regions like Manta. The study also suggested potential further gains by adjusting solar positioning at shorter intervals, such as every 15 or 30 min. These findings enhance our understanding of solar tracking performance in equatorial environments, offering valuable insights for optimizing solar energy systems in regions with high solar radiation. By emphasizing customized solar tracking mechanisms, this research presents promising solutions to Ecuador’s energy crisis and advances sustainable energy practices.
Automatic Detection of Olive Tree Canopies for Groves with Thick Plant Cover on the Ground
(MDPI, 2022-08-19) Illana Rico, Sergio; Martínez Gila, Diego Manuel; Cano Marchal, Pablo; Gómez Ortega, Juan
Marking the tree canopies is an unavoidable step in any study working with high-resolution aerial images taken by a UAV in any fruit tree crop, such as olive trees, as the extraction of pixel features from these canopies is the first step to build the models whose predictions are compared with the ground truth obtained by measurements made with other types of sensors. Marking these canopies manually is an arduous and tedious process that is replaced by automatic methods that rarely work well for groves with a thick plant cover on the ground. This paper develops a standard method for the detection of olive tree canopies from high-resolution aerial images taken by a multispectral camera, regardless of the plant cover density between canopies. The method is based on the relative spatial information between canopies.The planting pattern used by the grower is computed and extrapolated using Delaunay triangulation in order to fuse this knowledge with that previously obtained from spectral information. It is shown that the minimisation of a certain function provides an optimal fit of the parameters that define the marking of the trees, yielding promising results of 77.5% recall and 70.9% precision.
Automatic System for the Detection of Defects on Olive Fruits in an Oil Mill
(MDPI, 2021-09-03) Cano Marchal, Pablo; Satorres Martínez, Silvia; Gómez Ortega, Juan; Gámez García, Javier
The ripeness and sanitary state of olive fruits are key factors in the final quality of the virgin olive oil (VOO) obtained. Since even a small number of damaged fruits may significantly impact the final quality of the produced VOO, the olive inspection in the oil mill reception area or in the first stages of the productive process is of great interest. This paper proposes and validates an automatic defect detection system that utilizes infrared images, acquired under regular operating conditions of an olive oil mill, for the detection of defects on individual fruits. First, the image processing algorithm extracts the fruits based on the iterative application of the active contour technique assisted with mathematical morphology operations. Second, the defect detection is performed on the segmented olives using a decision tree based on region descriptors. The final assessment of the algorithm suggests that it works effectively with a high detection rate, which makes it suitable for the VOO industry.
CACESOL: Characterization of photovoltaic solar cells and modules. Experimental measurement of the V-I curves
(Journal Science IES, 2016-06-27) Amate-Marchal, M.; Castro-Valderas, J.; Bueno-Rodríguez, R.; Pérez-Jiménez, F. J.; Gómez-Macías, A.; Medina-Rincón, A.; Aguilar-Peña, Juan Domingo; Rus-Casas, Catalina; Muñoz-Rodríguez, Francisco José
La obtención y translación a condiciones estándar de medida (CEM) de las curvas características V-I tomadas a sol real de una célula y módulo fotovoltaico, probablemente sea una de las prácticas imprescindibles en cualquier trabajo de investigación relacionado con la tecnología fotovoltaica. Este trabajo trata de obtener los distintos parámetros de las curvas de funcionamiento de la célula y módulo fotovoltaico, para diferentes condiciones de iluminación (irradiancia), pasar a valores en condiciones estándar de medida y comparar con las proporcionadas en las hojas de características por el fabricantede dispositivos fotovoltaicos (FV). Se demuestra la dependencia de la corriente con la irradiancia recibida sobre la célula solar. Nuestro estudio se realizó en el laboratorio (indoor) y en condiciones a sol real (outdoor) con un mini módulo de silicio monocristalino (CS20M20 de 2,36v, 1.21A, 2.2Wp), y módulo de silicio policristalino (Shell RSM 100S de 100Wp). Los parámetros a medir son: la temperatura de la célula (Tc), temperatura ambiente (Ta), irradiancia (G), la corriente en cortocircuito (ISC), tensión en circuito abierto (VOC). Para la obtención de la curva VI en interior se utilizaron distintos valores de resistencias eléctricas para la medida de la tensión en extremos del módulo y la corriente del circuito. La instrumentación utilizada para la medida de los distintos parámetros fue, termómetro de temperatura de superficie y temperatura ambiente, voltímetro DC, pinza amperimétrica y medidor de irradiancia. Una vez realizadas las distintas medidas, se han hecho los cálculos necesarios para mostrar el comportamiento de los módulos ensayados.

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